(00:00:10 to 00:05:01) The interview begins with an introduction to the subject's intent to preserve older-generation experiences and collect portable media equipment to showcase technological evolution. Early comparisons are made between manual workflows and modern digital ease.

(00:05:02 to 00:10:00) Discusses how earlier work was fully manual and demanded creative problem-solving. Gives examples of modifying equipment and explains that while creativity is still key today, digital tools simplify many formerly complex tasks.

(00:10:01 to 00:14:59) Confirms that earlier production offered no margin for drafts or mistakes. Shares personal background, including wireman training and gradual shift into video production through hands-on learning and feedback-based training.

(00:15:00 to 00:18:39) Describes transition from wiring work to media and video training driven by personal interest. Mentions later involvement as a trainer at workshops.

Session 2

(00:00:00 – 00:06:22) Emphasizes that learning was through direct technical exposure rather than formal institutional training. Learning occurred through experimentation and peer mentorship. Recalls being encouraged to take detailed notes during early training, which later served as personalised reference manuals for troubleshooting and understanding equipment.

(00:06:22 – 00:12:54) Affirms that practical experience was key to developing expertise. Explains that trainers were selected based on ability to communicate technical processes clearly, not academic credentials.

(00:12:54 – 00:18:52) Describes the process of becoming a trainer through experience and documentation. Technical teams always accompanied production units, and handwritten notebooks were more commonly used than manuals for on-site work.

(00:18:52 – 00:28:20) An incident involving lost footage due to tape issues is recounted. Updates were handled via structured training whenever new equipment was introduced, covering handling, usage, and troubleshooting steps. No specific field incident is recalled.

(00:00:59 to 00:02:25) The interview begins with an introduction setting the context and purpose of the discussion. It briefly outlines the background of the speaker and the focus on media and technology.

(00:02:26 to 00:08:29) The speaker describes how they developed an interest in filmmaking and video making. Joined CENDIT in 1984, May

(00:08:30 to 00:09:43) Explained that although no formal training was received, gained practical skills by working directly with equipment and learning on the job. Formal training

(00:09:49 to 00:11:10) Reflects on how he never expected to become a trainer. Talks about the slow shift from tape to video, which was mainly for broadcasts such as in Doordarshan.

(00:11:11 to 12. 14) Describes how CENDIT got equipment at subsidised rates to support projects and tech promotion. Mentions how JVC was the prominently used cameras and recorders.

(00:12:15 to 00:12.56) Mr Ranjan's first experience was at an advertising professionals workshop and they demonstrated the workings of video and how the process of making an Ad became much easier with this technology:also did other such programmes.

(00:12. 57 to 00:13.32) He explains that Doordarshan wasn't open to external productions at the time, so there was an attempt to create pilot programmes to pitch. One example was a quiz contest with Siddhartha Basu, promoted by Nikita Shah's group.

(00:13.33 to 00:15.32) The work in the social sector involved using portable video equipment to reach rural areas, often transporting gear by bullock carts. These initiatives focused on leveraging video as a tool for social change. The shift from film to video was revolutionary for accessibility and outreach.

(00:15.39 to 00:17.35) The connection between CENDIT's hardware and programming branch and its media production activities is described. While animation projects were attempted, the focus remained on producing advertisements and social sector content. This dual focus reflects CENDIT's broad media engagement.

(00:17.36 to 00:22:00) Advertising work taught technical skills like camera handling and editing but lacked intellectual fulfillment. In contrast, social sector projects involved engaging with real issues and communities. This distinction highlights the different motivations and experiences in these two media domains.

(00:22.01 to 00:27. 52) Media production and conducting workshops for NGOs across India happened simultaneously. The aim was to make technology accessible and help people tell their stories. Training evolved from informal sessions to structured 20-week courses covering all production aspects.

(00:27:53 to 00:35:28) Initially, trainees were selected by NGOs without specific criteria, leading to mixed participant profiles. Later, direct outreach helped identify passionate individuals more aligned with CENDIT's goals. Some trainees went on to successful media careers while others drifted away from social focus.

(00:35:29 to 00:37:45) The broadening of workshop participation diluted the original social mission. Free training attracted many attendees not necessarily committed to social causes. Though some went on to prestigious media jobs, the workshops gradually shifted away from their empowering intent.

(00:37:46 to 00:44:09) Various workshop formats existed, from superficial demonstrations to comprehensive field-based training. Longer courses covered shooting, sound, editing, and storytelling with practical screenings and feedback. This evolution reflects a growing sophistication in media training approaches.

(00:44:10 to 00:51:02) The video equipment was heavy but manageable, with cameras and VCRs weighing around 10kg each. Despite technical complexity, users could learn to operate the gear effectively. Editing was more difficult due to syncing challenges and the linear nature of tape-based systems. Describing technology

(00:51:03 to 1:00:24) Technicians played a vital role in maintaining equipment and supporting users. Video editing caused generation loss due to linear editing processes. Sound was often neglected, with dedicated sound technicians becoming common only in the late 1990s. Describing technology

(01:00:25 to 01:01:39) By the 1990s, CENDIT had become a prominent hub for filmmaking, attracting many students and independent filmmakers. The audio-visual medium became widespread and familiar to a larger audience. This period marked growth in the production and appreciation of independent films.

(01:01:45 to 01:04:13) The 1990s saw video technology become more affordable, with rental costs dropping and studios increasing. Independent documentary filmmakers received more funding. This democratization of equipment and resources expanded access to media production.

(01:04:22 to 01:19:52) The timeline of video formats progressed from U-matic low-band to Betacam and digital DV, marking technological leaps. Editing evolved from complex hardware-based processes to user-friendly non-linear systems. These innovations made post-production faster and more flexible. Hands on experience :technological change :user friendly and time saving technologies

(10:19:53 To 01:28:16) The studio environment at CENDIT was collaborative, with media and hardware teams working closely. Technicians learned on the job and supported users with complex equipment. There was minimal hierarchy, and personal relationships fostered a friendly working atmosphere. Work environment

(01:28:17 to 01:30:42) Conclusion

(00: 00:00 – 00:01:03) A brief introduction to the conversation. (00:01:04 – 00:02:17) Chandan explains that his entry into the field was not initially by choice but a necessity for a job in 1989. His father's friend, Sujit Chatterjee, took him to the Centre for Development of Instructional Technology (CENDIT). Chandan, who is from Uttarakhand, didn't have a specific initial interest in technical work. (00:02:18 – 00:07:24) Chandan began in the maintenance department at CENDIT, working alongside 'Kailash Bhai' and 'Raju Bhaiyya'. His job was to open and check machines for faults, which led him into the technical line. He attended workshops, mostly at the CENDIT unit in Sultanpur, where Ranjan Ji and Gargi Ji were the main instructors. He learned audio dubbing and editing and was responsible for setting up tools and managing equipment like batteries for students. He recounts two significant field experiences: covering the Mandal Commission events in Delhi, where the police briefly captured their cassette; and the Narmada Bachao Andolan, a 15-day foot journey where he worked as an assistant to Amar Sharma and was responsible for field tasks like recharging batteries at night.

(00:07:25 – 00:09:02) A brief pause in the conversation.

(00:09:03 – 00:10:45) Chandan elaborates on the 15-day Narmada journey, confirming the travel was entirely on foot. He was part of the crew that included K. P. Sasi, Ratna Mathur, and Amar Sharma. Chandan was the sound person and was responsible for physically carrying heavy equipment, including a 10 kg VCR, throughout the trip.

(00:10:47 – 00:17:10) The team discusses the challenges of field maintenance amid dust and extreme weather. Chandan personally handled the cleaning process. Before any shoot, the camera lens (using a specific leather) and the VCR's audio and video heads were meticulously cleaned by hand with a brush. He recounts two equipment failure incidents: once in Rajasthan, where a forgotten camera was completely damaged and needed replacement (which took a day or two); and another instance where a VTR failed to show the meter or a machine's display went off while still recording, leading to issues later. (00:17:11 – 00:18:09) Chandan addresses the question of whether the working module or crew size changed when machines transitioned from large to small. He notes that CENDIT largely maintained its work module, with most projects done on the Beta format.

(00:18:10 – 00:19:00) A brief pause and clarification with Ranjan De. (00:19:01 – 00:24:45) CENDIT utilized various formats, including U-matic, and would occasionally hire High Band equipment for specific projects, also using S-VHS and VHS. Chandan's primary job in this period involved cassette making and duplication. Film segments were done in 30-minute parts. He would create a VHS "master" copy, which was the final product after mixing and adding audio. Due to the fragility of cassettes, a copy of the master was always made and stored safely as a backup. The duplication process could take up to 20 hours. (00:24:46 – 00:28:36) After leaving CENDIT, Chandan worked for a company called J Com, doing multi-camera, multi-setup work. He then did freelancing and now works for NewsClick. He highlights learning about connectors (like those from Radio Corporation), which proved valuable in his subsequent career. Ranjan De adds information about different world formats, specifically long play. (00:28:37 – 29:20 Addressing the issue of different world formats, Chandan confirms that when external footage needed to be integrated into a film, it always required conversion. Many organizations specialized solely in this conversion process. (00:29:21 – 00:33:55) Chandan details his career path after CENDIT: at J Com, he did multi-setup work, including adjusting CCUs (camera controller units) to match colors; at Ramoji Film City (Hyderabad), he worked as an Editing Supervisor using the Divisi Pro system but left due to a salary disparity; he worked at Wiggan and Leigh College in technical documentation and editing; then at White Walls Media (Gurgaon) on editing videos; and finally joined NewsClick in 2017 as a cameraman. (00:33:56 – 00:37:20) Despite his wide-ranging experience, Chandan prefers camera work over editing, which he finds too intensive, even with small details. He acknowledges that camera work, especially outdoors, is physically labor-intensive. He recalls one incident of standing for eight hours to record the exhibition of Sitaram Yechury's body.

(00:37:21 – 00:38:45) A short pause in the conversation.

(00: 38:46 – 00: 46:33) Chandan was at CENDIT until 1998, primarily engaged in the technical field. His responsibilities included checking equipment, performing voice-over and audio recording, and managing connections. He details the studio environment, using a gun mic in the field and a lapel mic 77B for multi-setup studio work. Working hours were typically eight hours, with extra pay for overtime, although initial shifts were based on the requirements to finish the work.

(00:46:34 – 00:54:04) Chandan worked at CENDIT for nine years (1989-1998). Although his work profile (technical and camera assistant) remained consistent, his projects varied. He left CENDIT due to payment issues and subsequently held multiple roles: Technical and Camera Assistant at CENDIT, Technician at Jaycom, Editing Supervisor at Ramoji Film City, Machine Maintenance Technician at Bin Channel (Madras), Technical Supervisor and Instructor at Wiggan and Leigh College, Cameraman at White Walls Media, and Freelance Cameraman since 2011.

(00: 54:05 – 00:59:48) Chandan notes that many people graduating from major colleges often have strong theoretical knowledge but lack practical, hands-on experience. These newcomers often need to be taught basic field concepts like lighting and camera settings, which can only be fully mastered through real-world experience.

(00:59:49 – 01:12:23) He left CENDIT due to issues with payment, as he was the only earning member in his family. He immediately began working as a camera assistant at Dilli City Cable from 1999 to 2001. A camera assistant's duties involved much more than cleaning; they included audio checking, roll checking, and managing battery changes. Maintaining equipment mainly involved fault checking, cable connections, and head cleaning.

(01:12:24 – 01:13:08) A brief pause in the conversation.

(01:13:09 – 01:16:40) Chandan clarifies that a technician's job requires comprehensive knowledge of all connected machines. This included setting up and connecting two VCRs to each other, managing all cable output, and operating a special effects generator. (01:16:41 – 01:26:59) Learning was hands-on: if a machine faulted, they would go to a senior to help diagnose it, learning whether the issue was with a cable or a chip. While machines were generally reliable, cameras often faced issues in extremely hot places, such as Rajasthan. To combat the heat, the cameras had to be wrapped in cold or wet clothes during shooting. Earlier, mechanical machines were prone to wear and tear, and continuous use was avoided in the field, unlike modern digital equipment. (01:27:00 – 01:35:53) Chandan provides a brief chronology of camera technology: VTRs were used until around 2005, followed by the emergence of the DVCPRO camcorder, Digi-Beta, and Beta formats. He details the differences that came with each update. He began using the contemporary, digital, card-based cameras in the late 2000s. (01:35:54 – 01:39:04) The interview concludes with an inquiry about whether Chandan has any photos, notes, or diary entries from his early days in the field.

(00:00:00 to 00:18:15) Giving away of materials and items, including boxed materials donated by Rajive Jain. Description of the nature of the materials being handed over, along with a brief introduction to the context of the donation.

(00:18:16 to 00:30:10) Discussion on different computer hardware components and early uses of computers at CENDIT. Computers were introduced to create databases to consolidate and share large amounts of information. Later, computers were also used for editing purposes. Although computers existed from the 1970s, their extensive use began in the 1980s. Cameras brought into CENDIT are briefly discussed, highlighting the wide range of areas CENDIT worked in.

(00:30:11 to 00:44:03) Pause followed by discussion on the materials that were accessed during the session.

(00:44:04 to 00:48:14) CENDIT was started by a group of young people with an interest in social issues and backgrounds in film. The core belief was that the moving image should be democratized, demystified, and made accessible. At the time, the reach of audiovisual media was very limited. The reasons for starting CENDIT are outlined, along with how films were made and how filmmakers were encouraged. The first research efforts focused on understanding how films were received by people and how folk and alternative mechanisms of distribution functioned.

(00:48:15 to 00:49:45) There arose a need to find efficient technologies to manage increasing work demands. Super 8 film was discovered as the first major technological input—small, portable, and suitable for documentation. Workshops on Super 8 filmmaking were conducted to expose people to alternative possibilities of image-making.

(00:49:46 to 00:51:46) To generate income for the organization, CENDIT undertook various projects. One of the earliest initiatives was persuading the Maurya Hotel to establish a closed-circuit television programme for guest entertainment—the first of its kind in the country. This involved technicians and engineers and helped build a technical team. Apart from readily available films, new content was created specifically for this circuit, including programmes featuring Indian cultural forms such as music and dance.

(00:51:47 to 00:58:07) An encounter with an individual working with video cameras for documenting agricultural issues led to the organization receiving a video camera. This enabled CENDIT to undertake its own recordings. Research continued alongside film screenings, discussions, and interactive workshops. These spaces allowed people to express themselves publicly, unlike in other restricted environments. After building consensus on social issues, recorded materials were taken to government authorities to urge action. An anecdote from Sarangpur village during the Emergency period is discussed.

(00:58:08 to 01:00:36) CENDIT pioneered work in the NGO sector related to communication and media. It collaborated with several NGOs and social movements to document issues of concern. Numerous training programmes were conducted for NGO workers. A distribution network was developed to exchange video tapes, forming a communication resource network that also organized training programmes. CENDIT later became involved in women's issues through workshops and training programmes involving participants from Nepal, Bangladesh, Pakistan, and other regions.

(01:02:10 to 01:03:11) CENDIT expanded its engagement to the international level by collaborating with video practitioners globally. An international organization called VIDEAZIMUT was formed, which organized seminars, symposiums, and conferences across different continents. These platforms focused on alternative communication practices and global developments in media.

(01:03:12 to 01:04:38) CENDIT no longer functions. Its last major work was completed by the late 1990s. The speaker explains a belief that institutions are created to serve specific purposes and should not exist merely to perpetuate themselves. By the end of the 1990s, CENDIT's objectives were considered fulfilled.

(01:04:39 to 01:06:33) Technological transitions from film and Super 8 to video formats are discussed. Formats such as three-quarter inch video are mentioned. The shift to video was driven by efficiency, speed, and accessibility. Compared to film, video enabled faster production and wider acceptance, and technology choices were influenced by prevailing industry standards.

(01:06:34 to 01:10:58) CENDIT preferred working with people who understood social contexts but needed training in technology. These individuals were introduced to video technology and trained as operators and technicians. One of the founders was an engineer, and Rajiv Malhotra played a key role in setting up the Maurya Hotel circuit. Since CENDIT owned equipment, in-house repair facilities were developed, along with training in equipment maintenance.

(01:10:59 to 01:13:04) Interactions with individuals who recognized the usefulness of video communication but lacked technical knowledge are discussed. Many others were initially unaware of its potential. Exposure and awareness were therefore crucial. During the early 1970s, there were many committed NGOs, and meetings with them took place in a generally supportive social climate. An incident illustrating this environment is mentioned.

(01:13:05 to 01:20:35) CENDIT's engagement with people's movements such as Bhopal, Narmada Andolan, and movements in Chhattisgarh is discussed. These were not NGOs but grassroots movements. CENDIT functioned as a resource centre, attracting people because it had equipment and facilities. It became a training ground emphasizing social consciousness and commitment. Many individuals trained at CENDIT later moved on to other forms of work. Research conducted at CENDIT informed its other activities. Communication research at the time focused on people, unlike today's media research, which prioritizes channels and viewership metrics.

(01:20:36 to 01:23:38) The working environment at CENDIT is described. People were drawn to the organization due to its openness and shared knowledge culture. There were no rigid hierarchies, though distinctions existed between production staff—often more formally educated and English-speaking—and technical staff, who were usually locally rooted, often without formal education, and learned skills on the job.

(00:00:00 – 00:00:39) Brief introduction to the conversation.

(00:00:40 – 00:13:40) Entered media without training, for pocket money. Introduced to CENDIT by a family friend in 1981. Shifted from transmission to production after an incident. Learned while working with seniors more focused on still photography. Participated in and recalls NGO-linked media training programs and film work.

(00:13:41 – 00:15:18) Describes diverse programmes CENDIT did, including trade fairs. Technological evolution from VHS and U-matic to advanced Sony cameras. After the '90s, there was more freedom in choosing formats.

(00:15:19 – 00:24:48) Left CENDIT in 1992 due to personal and financial pressures. Joined Times TV, then freelanced. Worked with Zee TV, CNN, and others. Experienced dissatisfaction with digital tech's shift from older, larger equipment.

(00:24:49 – 00:32:00) Reflected on working across many formats and contexts. Tech changes once gradual became sudden. Emphasized efficiency, video clarity, and shooting without breaks. (00:32:01 – 00:41:17) Describes the unseen technical effort behind film production. Compared analog vs digital, arguing something was lost in the shift. Talked about fieldwork, resolution quality, and purpose-driven camera choices (feature vs news).

(00:41:18 – 00:45:03) Field conditions affected equipment. In 1985 you had to clean and maintain constantly. Recalls Vietnam shoot — outdoor conditions required technical caution and skilled support.

(00:45:04 – 00:51:29) Stopped working after 2018 by choice. Wanted to rest after decades of nonstop work. Had an accident later; took it as a sign to slow down. Feels he's lived and worked through his peak (1990s–2010s).

(00:51:30 – 00:57:28) Discusses teamwork — the essential role of technicians, audio assistants, etc. Highlights work environment and changing skill levels within teams.

(00:57:29 – 1:01:35) Branded equipment meant limited contact with manufacturers. Once attended a trade fair demo. Repair/maintenance had more interaction with brands than production staff. No feedback loop from users like him.

(01:01:36 – 1:07:55) Felt greater satisfaction in earlier years. But salary delays (3 months unpaid) and instability forced many to leave. Gradually, CENDIT became defunct. Rent and financial pressure made continuation impossible.

(00:00 – 00:29) Brief start to the interview.

(00:30 – 06:38) Reflects on 47 years in the media. Started at Doordarshan (Vigyan Bhawan), worked on programs for Bihar, MP, and Rajasthan. Telecasts centralized in Ahmedabad. Joined CENDIT in 1978 via a producer. Early work included CCTV at Maurya Hotel and classical music/dance shows. Also did a serial and health project.

(06:39 – 12:35) Discusses analog equipment: early B&W recordings, 3-tube color cameras requiring manual alignment. Compared 2-inch VTR at Doordarshan with CENDIT's ½-inch tapes. Recalled hardships of carrying bulky gear uphill during shoots.

(12:36 – 15:45) Shared health awareness project photos - nurses, doctors, literacy, and adult education efforts through video documentation.

(15:46 – 20:32) Left CENDIT in 1984 to pursue projects like a Ganga documentary. Traveled from Badrinath to Gangasagar using carts and boats. Did camera work solo. Described difficulty in both shooting and editing then; but still proud of the films made.

(20:33 – 22:17) Compared analog and digital. Says digital is clearer, sharper, more convenient. Does not believe analog was "better"; manual control was tough, while today's cameras are small and powerful.

(22:18 – 24:59) Describes a live studio recording setup. Public interaction, reality-style shows. Monitor received live feed from the control room; the director used a mixer. Teamwork in the studio highlighted.

(25:00 – 28:38) Reflects on a 47-year journey. Worked with Discovery Channel, in various countries and for many production houses. Identified primarily as a cameraman, though directed some projects.

(28:39 – 33:01) Recall the early days of freelancing in India (1980s) when only a few did this work. Entry into the media was harder then. Today, digital has made it much easier to produce content, though earlier films required deep research and formal approvals (e.g., from health ministries). Now, the work is faster and access is easier, for better or worse.

(00:00:01 to 00:00:45) Brief Introduction (00:00:46 to 00:01:40) Talks about how the present shop was established—started after studying at Saifabad College, gradually adapting to current trends in technology. Mentions that many people come to the shop. (00:01:41 to 00:02:58) Explains the differences between old and current cameras—early cameras used tape, now it's digital. Tapes allow data recovery; digital data is lost if the device hangs or crashes. (00:03:07 to 00:03:55) On why people shifted to digital: it's portable, easier to handle. Earlier tech required more effort, now digital is simpler. Everything happens on the spot in video, making it highly efficient. (00:03:57 to 00:05:20) Machines deteriorate, so maintenance is necessary. Customers bring devices to engineers like him. They stay updated through books, videos, and experience. Tech changes every year and will keep evolving. (00:05:21 to 00:05:43) Talks about whether they get to know about the problems people face. Says yes, people even sit outside the shop waiting. (00:05:45 to 00:06:09) (pause) (00:06:12 to 00:06:37) When a camera or device doesn't work, people bring it directly to them. They identify the issue and repair it on the spot. Unlike service centers that keep devices for 10 days, they provide hands-on, immediate service. (00:06:38 to 00:08:58) When companies like Sony get to know about their repair work, they invite them for meetings to understand the ground-level repair process. Talks about price differences—companies charge more, but local engineers are cost-effective. They work at component level, which companies usually avoid. (00:08:59 to 00:10:12) They use experience, service manuals, and technical knowledge to identify problems. Tools used include multimeters, stethoscopes, etc. (00:10:13 to 00:11:40) Also worked in TV repair. Describes three main types of TVs he worked with before shifting fully to cameras around 1980. (00:11:41 to 00:15:10) Daily learning process. Even if he doesn't initially understand a camera issue, testing and experience help resolve it. Combines practical experience with ongoing self-study. (00:15:11 to 00:16:40) Mentions updating himself through YouTube channels and magazines. YouTubers also come to shoot videos of his repair work. (00:16:41 to 00:17:36) Form factor and internal system changes became important from the 1990s. He learned through studies and continuous updates to keep up with these changes. (00:17:37 to 00:18:24) Talks about differences in repairing older (pre-PCB) and newer cameras. Earlier, heavy cameras required them to go to the client's place; later they worked with handycams which were portable. (00:18:25 to 00:19:00) Talks about his colleague who has been working with him for many years. They understand each other's cues and coordinate repair efforts efficiently. (00:19:01 to 00:19:32) (pause) (00:19:33 to 00:20:57) Communication systems and client feedback have evolved. As technicians, they help customers who are often frustrated. If issues can't be solved in a day, they keep the device. Talks about the shift from VHS cameras and related challenges. (00:20:58 to 00:23:46) Talks about challenges manufacturers face in building interfaces suitable for field use. Manufacturers visit to understand technician and user needs. Mentions broadcast exhibitions where engineers interact with company representatives.

(00:00:00 – 00:02:13) Casual start; she discusses her background. Taught film appreciation and documentary filmmaking for 2 years. Later worked at Observer Research Foundation handling media. Retired around 10 years ago.

(00:02:14 – 00:02:46) Short introduction before diving into her CENDIT journey.

(00:02:47 – 00:05:06) Joined CENDIT in August 1974, started with documentation and transcription. Had secretarial training, so was proficient at typing. Was introduced to CENDIT via Avik Ghosh, whom she met through All India Radio.

(00:05:07 – 00:07:06) Chose to stay at CENDIT because the work was unconventional, creative, and non-bureaucratic. Didn't want a typical government job like her father or peers. Found the work and environment motivating.

(00:07:07 – 00:09:16) Worked at CENDIT for over 10 years. Started with audio recordings. Office environment was informal, and she worked alongside two other women handling writing and documentation.

(00:09:17 – 00:10:32) Personal interest in film rooted in watching films with her brother, a professor. They were members of a film club, which sparked a lifelong engagement with cinema.

(00:10:33 – 00:24:29) Learned on the job — early exposure to video tech, editing, and machine setup. Used U-matic, Betacam, and SVHS. Described editing flow: record, transfer, transcribe, paper edit. Editing was manual and risky (no backups). Also did celluloid editing using physical spools and markers.

24:30 – 35:09 Shift to non-manual editing began when a colleague built an early editing console. Later used Sony and JVC systems. Maurya Hotel project (India's first cable TV) allowed for regular program slots. Used placards for titles before caption tech was accessible.

(00:35:10 – 00:41:55) After Maurya contract ended, returned to CENDIT. Got involved with women's NGOs and began filmmaking. First film in 1983 changed her — Sultanpur, Saharanpur, and Tilonia workshops were pivotal.

(00:42:00 – 00:43:08) Discussed how to approach technical training for women without fear. Emphasized fun, accessible learning by meeting them at their level — just like she once started.

(00:43:09 – 00:46:36) Faced sexist comments about women and machines. Trainers countered this by teaching full media production processes — cameras, lighting, editing, batteries, etc. Women reacted with excitement and joy at learning.

(00:46:37 – 00:49:22) She never worked with very advanced machines — only what was available in the 1980s. Conducted training for 6–7 years. Trainees enjoyed workshops but rarely pursued careers further.

(00:49:23 – 00:53:55) Became a freelancer in the late 1980s. Needed both equipment and skills, so often worked with familiar ex-CENDIT colleagues. Used paper edits to save time (paid hourly). Left CENDIT as it moved toward a more corporate/management style.

(00:53:56 – 00:57:29) Recalled fieldwork in Ladakh. Remote locations meant she always travelled with technicians and hired equipment. No major issues occurred thanks to team coordination. Some discomfort, but collective effort overcame it.

(57:30 – 1:02:22) Reflected on team-based working environments. Built comfort and trust, even when traveling alone with men. Saw an increase in women in the field over time. In freelance world, independence grew post-1990s. Felt lucky to have always had supportive peers.

(1:02:25 – 1:08:28) Describes the transition from U-matic to Beta — found it smoother. Admitted to having a mental block with non-linear editing despite training. Preferred paper edits. At ORF, worked on stills and documentation. Editing was handed to IT team.

(1:08:29 – 1:12:55) Participated in regional women-in-media workshops (South Asia, 1980s–90s). Gave hands-on training in countries like Pakistan. Noted how training then was more immersive and skill-focused.

(1:12:56 – 1:15:00) Could manage basic equipment troubleshooting thanks to her training. Earlier, video literacy was rare; now, mass comm degrees are widespread. Taught at YWCA and Ayan School — most students didn't pursue media seriously, but teaching was fulfilling.

(00:00 – 03:00) Discussed Doordarshan's early history. Before recording media, stations in Delhi, Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta used fixed film or studio cameras. No portable cameras; all systems were analog.

(00:03:00 – 00:03:59) Brief introduction follows.

(00:04:00 – 00;17:30) From 1974, explained the evolution of early video recording. Mpex (USA) brought in rotary head recorders enabling video capture. Technical breakdown of analog systems: video modulation, photo-emissive materials, sync pulses. Portable video cameras arrived later, easing production.

(00:17:34 – 0:22:17) Explained transition to colour — resolution was sacrificed to add chroma data due to limited bandwidth. Japan introduced U-matic format: portable, colour, lower resolution — huge impact. Formats evolved into 2", 1", and ¾" tapes.

(00:22:18 – 00:29:00) Described processing workflow: camera → mixer → recorder → transmitter. CCD cameras revolutionized video. Lenses used to be smaller than camera bodies; now it's reversed. Phones now rival pro equipment. Used U-matic and Betacam in Doordarshan.

(00:29:01 – 00:35:18) Digital tech allowed higher quality in less space. Compression algorithms, CMOS sensors, half-inch and quarter-inch tapes. Gradually tapes were replaced with hard disks. Editing became simpler. Graphics tech and visual quality improved drastically.

(00:35:19 – 00:40:00) Did engineering in college, but real learning happened on the job. Repairs were expensive and studios multiplied. Gave context of India's tech status then — studios and gear began increasing due to demand.

(00:40:01 – 00:47:55) Recalled an incident when the 9 PM bulletin nearly failed. Backup stations placed to avoid outages. Telecasting moved from microwave to satellite to optical fibre. Doordarshan started giving equipment for field reporting/live use.

(00:47:56 – 00:53:59) Machine upgrades were key to analog-to-digital shift. Most improvements happened in recording. Generation loss, a big issue earlier, got resolved with newer tech. But infrastructure weak in connectors, interfaces. Tech is fine — attitude is the problem.

(00:54:00 – 59:24) Used to send detailed feedback to manufacturers. Machines showed wear easily; electronics less so, making issues harder to detect. Tools and self-diagnosing systems have improved. Earlier, media production lacked access to tools — now that's no longer the case.

(00:59:25 – 01:10:04) Maintenance required deductive work — rule out possibilities until you isolate the issue. Earlier, everything depended on repair; now machines are often discarded. Shared field stories, challenges, and emphasized training operators to fully exploit machine potential.

(01:10:05 – 01:17:390 Shared odd field stories — a goat chewed a mic during transmission. Described tower lighting in Kashmir, challenges with aviation standards, and a BBC bulletin he produced. Showed depth of field maintenance and unpredictability.

(01:17:40 – 01:27:30) Discussed antenna tech: Bell made them in the '70s and still does. Triveni used to manufacture transmitters. Reflected on evolution of manufacturers and closed the session with notes on changes over time.

(00:00:00 – 00:03:40) Opening of the interview with formal consent and institutional framing under the NCBS oral history project. The interviewer situates the conversation at Ashoke Rawal's Sushant Lok 3 office and introduces the focus on his long engagement with photography, film, and broadcast work in the Delhi region since the mid-1970s. (00:03:41 – 00:07:00) Family background and early exposure to photography. Rawal recalls accompanying his father, a journalist-photographer, observing assignments, and learning visual attention through everyday practice rather than formal instruction. (00:07:01 – 00:10:30) Early experimentation and technical curiosity. He describes experimenting with photographic "gimmicks" such as mirror images and layered effects, treating these as playful but serious exercises in understanding image-making. (00:10:31 – 00:14:30) Darkroom work and analogue discipline. Rawal explains film development, enlarger use, exposure control, and chemical processing, emphasizing patience, precision, and repetition as central to learning. (00:14:31 – 00:18:30) Analogue superimposition as labour-intensive craft. He outlines the multiple stages involved in producing a single superimposed image and reflects on the time and effort required in the 1970s. (00:18:31 – 00:25:30) Rawal discusses shifting his interest from still photography to motion pictures. He details learning under influential mentors like Ved Prakash and recognized the need for structured training. However, he felt the practical, hands-on learning he received was sufficient and thus decided against pursuing formal training at institutions like Pune (FTII), choosing to continue his path through experiential knowledge. (00:25:31 – 00:30:30) Entry into Doordarshan and studio orientation. He describes joining Doordarshan as a cameraman and encountering studio-based workflows that differed sharply from independent still photography. (00:30:31 – 00:35:30) Studio production logic. Rawal explains multi-camera arrangements, coordination between anchors and visuals, and the role of switching and adjustment in television studios. (00:35:31 – 00:40:30) Electronic superimposition in video. He introduces tape-based methods using multiple players and mixers, noting how preparation and coordination replaced darkroom labour. (00:40:31 – 00:49:10) Continuities between analogue and electronic practice. Rawal reflects on how planning and discipline remained necessary despite faster electronic processes. (00:49:11 – 00:54:30) Camera movement and lenses in ENG work. He discusses zoom lenses, framing decisions, and adapting camera position to achieve desired compositions in field conditions. (00:54:31 – 01:00:30) Video versus film cameras. Rawal compares balance, handling, and visual logic, emphasizing how different tools shape shooting decisions. (01:00:31 – 01:07:30) Institutional constraints within Doordarshan. He reflects on creative limitations and bureaucratic structures that influenced production choices. (01:07:31 – 01:13:30) Decision to resign and become independent. Rawal recounts leaving Doordarshan around 1984 and beginning freelance work, initially as a cinematographer. (01:13:31 – 01:20:30) Expanding professional roles. He describes moving from cinematography into directing and producing, gaining greater control over content and workflow. (01:20:31 – 01:27:30) First major independent project: Sarsoke Phool. Rawal outlines proposing the project to Doordarshan and situating it within the context of the Punjab situation in the late 1980s. (01:27:31 – 01:34:30) Commissioning and institutional approval. He explains how the project was approved and reflects on the risks and responsibilities involved in producing a one-hour telefilm. (01:34:31 – 01:40:30) Craft judgement in cinematography. Rawal discusses framing, movement, exposure, and on-set decision-making, stressing learning through practice rather than manuals. (01:40:31 – 01:47:30) Problem-solving and experiential knowledge. He reflects on resolving on-set challenges and how repeated field experience shaped confidence and technique. (01:47:31 – 01:52:30) Professional growth over time. Rawal looks back on how his understanding of image-making matured through varied projects and responsibilities. (01:52:31 – 01:58:30) Work culture and informal networks. He discusses studio environments, social interactions, and how reputation and access develop within media workplaces. (01:58:31 – 02:05:30) Institutional rhythms and everyday practice. Rawal reflects on work schedules, collaboration, and the lived experience of technical and creative labour. (02:05:31 – 02:07:53) Closing reflections and end of interview. The conversation winds down with remarks about space, hospitality, and concludes with thanks and confirmation of archival use.

(00:00:00 – 00:08:00) Bhatia recounts arriving in Delhi in 1984 and entering the broadcast engineering ecosystem during its formative years. After an initial period of training and short stints, he became the first engineer associated with the private-sector setup at NML (New Video Limited), which operated alongside emerging studios and production groups. He describes working with early color cameras and VTR systems at a time when formal textbooks or structured curricula for broadcast technology did not exist, forcing engineers to rely heavily on manuals, observation, and hands-on experimentation. (00:08:01 – 00:16:00) He emphasizes that much of what engineers needed to know—servo locking, drum behavior, tracking, phasing, and signal stability—was not taught in universities, including postgraduate programs. Even specialized TV engineering courses offered limited practical insight. Bhatia frames this period as one driven by deep curiosity: understanding how images were formed, how tape was recorded on rotating heads, and how early single-tube color cameras functioned during the transition to color television in India. (00:16:01 – 00:24:00) Bhatia stresses the importance of understanding the "design intent" behind Sony broadcast systems. He explains that proper servicing required grasping how engineers designed servo locks, reference locks, sync locking, and black burst distribution—not merely swapping parts. He argues that without understanding why a system was designed a certain way, troubleshooting becomes mechanical and ineffective. (00:24:01 – 00:32:00) He discusses providing technical consultation for NDTV's early programs, particularly World This Week, and earlier formats such as Focus associated with Saeed Naqvi. Bhatia clarifies that NDTV initially operated through program blocks rather than as a full-time channel. He describes the technical demands of chroma keying at the time, noting that high-quality chroma setups were capable of extremely fine keying—"even smoke," as it was often claimed—though all work remained within standard-definition workflows. (00:32:01 – 00:40:00) Rapidly Changing Formats and Non-Monotony of Work Bhatia reflects on the constant evolution of formats—low-band, high-band, Beta, SDI, later digital systems—and how this prevented the work from becoming monotonous. He notes that engineers were continually forced to relearn systems as technologies shifted, often without formal retraining, making adaptability a core professional skill. (00:40:01 – 00:48:00) He critiques the growing tendency of manufacturers to promote board-level replacement rather than component-level repair. Bhatia expresses frustration that circuit diagrams were often withheld, effectively preventing deeper repair work and reducing engineers to part-swappers. He contrasts this with earlier practices where faulty capacitors, sensors, or resistors could be identified and fixed directly. (00:48:01 – 00:56:00) Bhatia articulates a core belief: a good engineer never gives up on a machine. He describes how persistence, rather than official documentation or external support, often led to solutions—especially when others had declared systems "dead" or beyond repair. (00:56:01 – 01:04:00) He shares personal anecdotes illustrating the intensity of broadcast engineering in the 1980s–90s, including working 15-hour shifts for consecutive days during critical installations. He notes that professional responsibility frequently overrode personal life, at one point nearly conflicting with his own wedding. (01:04:01 – 01:12:00) Bhatia criticizes what he describes as a "placement-driven" mindset among younger engineers, where speed and job security outweigh curiosity. He contrasts this with earlier generations who would spend days investigating minor faults such as stuck pins, dirty sensors, or mechanical timing issues rather than replacing entire units. (01:12:01 – 01:20:00) He discusses his role in mentoring junior engineers, many of whom later rose to senior positions in Sony and other broadcast organizations. Bhatia acknowledges being perceived as strict or intimidating but frames this as necessary to maintain technical rigor and professional standards. (01:20:01 – 01:28:00) Bhatia recounts a prolonged failure involving a Beta/DigiBeta machine that remained unresolved for months despite manufacturer intervention. While official advice suggested replacing the entire mechanical assembly (at over 50% of the machine's cost), he ultimately identified the issue as a dirty or malfunctioning sensor in the tape-threading mechanism. Cleaning the sensor resolved the problem within minutes, underscoring his argument about overlooking simple causes while chasing complex ones. (01:28:01 – 01:34:57) The interview concludes with Bhatia reflecting on his academic background in Applied Physics and how it later helped him understand color theory, signal standards (NTSC/RGB), and system behavior. He emphasizes that true understanding came not from single readings, but from repeated engagement with technical manuals, live machines, and failure analysis over decades. (01:34:57 – 01:35:12) Conclusion

(00:00:00 – 00:06:59) The speaker talks about the first meeting dates as 1986 or 1987 and explains that video work began as village reporting and documentation of activities like village development, health, and education . Content was spread to villagers using slides and still photos via a small, portable projector powered by a 12-volt battery. Commentary, like the story about cleanliness ("Saapad Saapdu"), was provided in a mix of Hindi and Marwari. The speaker, who initially worked in accounts, joined the communication team in 1994. (00:07:00 – 00:13:59) The documentation approach was participatory, focusing on archiving the organization's work, village culture, and social changes. The team mapped blocks, specifically the Shillora block, with approximately 130 villages, to plan field work, including water and famine relief campaigns in 1987. Local youth, often with minimal formal education, were trained to use simple Kodak cameras and darkroom processes. They learned photography skills by producing and developing prints themselves. The speaker and mentors trained youth from affiliated sub-centers in basic photography and video. One trainee, Ramlal, a former shepherd boy, became a "barefoot photographer" and later transitioned to professional wedding photography.(00:00:00 – 00:01:43) The opening focuses on the strong group and family connections around the Tillonia campus, recalling informal inside stories about the friendships and people who supported collaborative projects and skill-sharing.

(00:01:44 – 00:02:34) There is a pause in the conversation.

(00:02:35 – 00:06:21) The group engages in a collective recollection of projects undertaken by the Tillonia campus, including collaborations with CENDIT. They discuss the documentation of sites such as Jantar Mantar and various colony initiatives. The segment concludes with inquiries about the old campus photos and the location and preservation of archived scripts, documents, and other documentary records.

(00:14:00 – 00:20:59) Early screenings in villages were conducted using small, battery-powered TV sets as electricity was unavailable; projectors were not used. Training was internal and provided by visiting colleagues. Crucially, staff learned to perform local technical repairs like soldering and head-cleaning on VCRs and TVs because sending equipment to distant cities like Jaipur or Delhi caused prohibitive delays. The speaker contrasts theatre as a two-way, interactive communication mode that allows immediate audience feedback, with film as a one-way medium useful for repeatable dissemination.

(00:21:00 – 00:27:59) The speaker observes a cultural shift away from communal activities like village fairs and live music where multiple generations participated. Modern media consumption favors visible, easily shareable content on mobile phones/YouTube, reducing the communal viewing experience and connection to the creator. Funding is a major challenge: institutions must write proposals to secure money, and government funding is limited. Furthermore, CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility) donors often prescribe the specific cultural projects they will sponsor, limiting local autonomy. Finally, the rapid pace of technological change poses a challenge, as new systems are often opaque, making it difficult for grassroots workers to keep up with changing modules.

(00:28:00 – 00:31:11) The speaker shares a 2023 anecdote about a woman in Punjab who used a washing machine for churning a milkshake, illustrating grassroots ingenuity and the repurposing of available tools. He concludes by stressing the need for an interdisciplinary approach to technology, arguing that solutions require broader cooperation and looking at all connected factors rather than limiting oneself to a single subject.

(00:00:00 – 00:05:00) Briefly mentions the high cost of infrastructures and the status of village water supply (pipelines and head pumps). The speaker recounts falling ill, which forced them to learn computer skills. Describes months long struggle to learn the English keyboard due to a lack of formal education but eventually mastered typing in both Hindi and English. This skill led them to teach girls, women, and boys to work as computer teachers. (00:05:01 – 00:13:30) The speaker became the female head of the village (Sarpanch). She won the election with 723 votes without any external spending. Also mentions a Gram Sabha meeting incident where speaker confronted the Collector and Pradhan about a zero budget for the village and the lack of seating for 600-800 girls at the school. The speaker used their computer records as proof of the zero budget and successfully pushed for the construction of 13 new rooms at the school. (00:13:31 – 00:18:00) Mentions the gaining land for the school, publicly asking for it as alms on January 26th and registering it for the school's use, focusing on rectifying boundaries and installing power where needed. In her tenure, she managed to get 15 gravel roads and 30 brick roads built, infrastructure development that had not occurred in 60 years. (00:18:01 – 00:21:30) She dedicated 12 acres of Panchayat land to build a hospital. The facility now has 30 staff members and performs critical inspections for delivery, sugar, TB, and blood pressure, medical services that had been absent for 60 years in the village. (00:21:31 – 00: 27:00) The speaker, who learned about NREGA and the Right to Information (RTI) from her mentor," Arunaji". She critiques the high level of corruption in villages and expresses disillusionment with the voting process. They emphasize that understanding the law prevents them from being exploited and empowers them to fight the government. (00:27:01 – 00:35:00) Discusses the constant conflicts, including being beaten and having a pen thrown at them at a Gram Sabha meeting, but successfully defended themselves using the law. They recount being called for a social audit and giving a complete record, including bills and vouchers, noting the village handed over 13.5 lakh rupees during the audit. The speaker admits there was a lot of corruption when they were in power. They passed the entire budget through the village assembly and achieved significant cost savings, building a service center for Rs. 10 lakhs compared to the typical Rs. 15-25 lakhs. (00:35:01 – 00:42:00) Recounts facing severe personal threats, including being harassed by over 50 aggravated people at their house, which prompted them to file an FIR. They recount having to throw a bunch of boys out of their house and dealing with opposition from their own son regarding their role in the panchayat. The speaker (now around 81 years old) asserts that they will always sit in the panchayat, emphasizing that if one's mind is not scared, no one can stop them from moving ahead. (00:42:01 – 00:46:32) The speaker offers a strong critique of modern mechanization and despite learning computer skills, they express caution against excessive use of technology. The speaker concludes by reflecting on their personal strength.

(00:00:00 – 00: 01:05) The interview opens with a brief introduction where the speaker sets the context for his early years before joining SWRC. He talks about the kind of work he was involved in and how those experiences shaped his initial understanding of collective labour and craft-based work. (00:1:05 – 00:7:50) He describes his time working with a group of people doing painting work, along with his elder brother. During that period, visitors from Tillonia often came to observe and collaborate. When SWRC began working on a series about a girls' school in Kishangarh, they sought local assistance, and his brother's previous experience proved useful. Through this connection, he got acquainted with someone from the production team, who invited him to join SWRC. After being told about the better salary, living quarters, and facilities, he decided to take the opportunity. Having some prior experience in photography, he officially joined the Audio-Visual Department at SWRC Tillonia on 16 October 1982. His initial training involved handling projectors, black-and-white photography, and assisting with documentary films, particularly those shown in rural areas. There was also collaboration with the Ajmer Audio-Visual Centre of the government. (00: 7:51 – 00:10:28) He explains that at first, he did not have any knowledge about operating tape cameras. However, professionals from organizations such as CENDIT frequently visited the campus, and he learned by carefully observing their work. When CENDIT gifted a video camera to SWRC, it was initially used by senior staff, but over time he was included in their projects and gradually began operating the camera himself. This hands-on experience allowed him to learn filming techniques, still photography, and documentation. Around this time, color technology began entering the camera world, transforming the nature of their visual work. (00:10:30 – 00:12:39) Camera maintenance was one of his responsibilities. Although he never faced a serious malfunction while using a camera, he often helped colleagues with technical problems. He recalled repairing a JVC camera twice in Jaipur, which required fixing both the screen and internal components. He learned maintenance practices such as cleaning lenses and keeping the equipment dust-free from the experts at CENDIT. (00:12:40 – 00:17:23) Editing and slide preparation were done whenever required. While major slide sets were sent from Delhi, smaller ones for local screenings were created by their own team at SWRC. These slides were used in rural education programs and community screenings. Documentation practices improved significantly over time, and after 1996, records of their work became much more systematic and carefully maintained. (00:17:24 – 00:28:39) After the JVC camera, digital video (DV) cameras were introduced. The new devices were easier to use, but older VHS and VTR cameras had been more difficult to handle. He recalled the strain caused by using viewfinders for long periods, which would hurt his eyes. One particular incident took place during a Commonwealth seminar around 1990, when an important shoot turned out unclear due to dust in the lens, but after cleaning the camera, the clarity returned. He also mentioned the challenges of interviewing people, especially women, in rural areas. Initially, villagers were hesitant, but once trust was built, they opened up and participated willingly in documentary projects about social issues. (00:27:40 – 00:38:32) He spoke in detail about the shift from black-and-white to color photography and how it changed their working methods. The newer color cameras were lighter, could function in low light, and allowed greater flexibility in field documentation. However, the preservation of material was difficult due to environmental conditions and lack of storage facilities. The earlier cameras had very short battery life, lasting only about 30 minutes, forcing them to pause their work for recharging. During outdoor shoots, they carried generators to keep the cameras running. He recalled one incident where the battery died just as the filming ended, laughing about how close the timing was. (00:38:33 – 00:47:16) Another memory he shared was about a projector malfunction during a public screening in a village near Ajmer. Due to moisture, the filmstrip tore in two parts, interrupting the show. They managed to repair it manually and continued the screening. These projector shows were very popular in villages, used both for educational documentaries and entertainment films. The sessions often drew large crowds, including children who eagerly waited for animated films. Projectors were also used during meetings and community discussions, serving as an important communication tool. (00:47:17 – 00:49:56) Reflecting on technological change, he observed how the spread of mobile phones transformed the culture of viewing and production. Earlier, people used to gather in large groups for community screenings, but now anyone could record and share videos independently. The collective excitement around screenings had slowly disappeared as production became accessible to everyone. (00:49:57 – 00:50:30) There is a brief exchange about the existence of written records, reports, and documentation related to the audio-visual department's past work. (00:50:31 – 00:57:55) He recalled his strong work ethic and dedication, mentioning how he often stayed late in the office to finish tasks ahead of deadlines. One vivid memory involved a challenging assignment where he had to extract footage, compile it on a computer, and burn it onto a DVD overnight for submission the next day. Despite never having done such a task before, he learned through trial and error and successfully completed it. He shared other similar moments that illustrated how much he learned directly through experience. (00: 57:56 – 00: 59:59) Instruction manuals played a crucial role in helping him and his colleagues handle technical problems. Whenever they faced issues with audio-visual equipment, these manuals guided them in repairs and troubleshooting. After many years of service, he left the Audio-Visual Department in 2014 and moved to the library division at SWRC. (1:00:00 – 1:04:20) When asked about the availability of old reports and records, he explained that although extensive work had been done over the years, proper documentation and archiving were not consistently maintained. As a result, some valuable material had been lost or was difficult to trace. (1:04:21 – 1:14:51) The conversation draws to a close with some final remarks and the signing of necessary documents. The speaker reflects briefly on his long career, expressing satisfaction in the skills he gained and the contributions he made to the Audio-Visual Department's legacy.

(00:00:00 – 00: 00:35) Introductory section where the speaker briefly introduces himself and the nature of his work at SWRC. (00:00:36 – 00: 2:28) He began working in 1986, initially doing screen painting. When space for that work was no longer available on campus, he was absorbed into the Audio-Visual Department, where he gradually learned photography. With no formal training, he was given a small Kodak camera and learned by practice. His early assignments included photographing the SWRC campus, its environment, and later people during field visits, experimenting with different angles and compositions. (00:2:29 – 00:11:33) At that time, photography relied on negatives, so one had to wait to see the results. Another colleague managed the darkroom work while he helped select and print the best photos. Negative cameras were used till around 2000, after which card-based digital cameras replaced them. He then shifted to using VHS cameras for video recording, documenting meetings, bal melas, cultural events, and other community programs. Editing became part of his job along with two others, and he learned basic technical skills. Portable projectors were used to screen films in villages, and later, edited videos were shown through VCRs and televisions. (00: 11:34 – 00:14:33) When asked to compare DV and VHS cameras, he said VHS was easier to handle and edit. Although DV cameras were fine, computer-based editing software later became more complex. His favourite device was the Panasonic VCR because it was lightweight and rechargeable. He also found camcorders very convenient for quick recordings. (00: 14:36 – 00: 20:18) Films and video copies were stored on DVDs and later on hard drives. DVDs are now outdated, and hard drives are the main storage devices, though he is unsure what will come next. He personally worked on slide photography and screenings for children and community events. Initially, projectors ran on vehicle batteries, then petrol, and later kerosene generators, which were used until around 2008–2009 when kerosene became unavailable. A 1KW generator powered both projectors and accompanying devices. Nowadays, he said, people no longer gather for screenings as they once did, since movies and videos are easily available on mobile phones. (00:20:19 – 00:25:45) Regarding training with new equipment, he explained that their colleague Bhopal ji often visited Delhi for workshops and returned to teach and train the rest of the team. They also practiced hands-on learning by opening up faulty devices and figuring out the issues themselves. Problems like dust deposits on cassette heads were common, so cleaning was part of regular maintenance. VHS tapes are no longer used; instead, copies are made digitally when needed. (00:25:46 – 00:31:34) He recalled how, earlier, audio recording used large reels and later smaller tapes. Audio and video were recorded separately, requiring synchronization during editing. For instance, commentary and slide-show audio had to be aligned manually with visuals. Today, most audio work is done on phones. In earlier times, he managed 3–4 cameras, maintaining daily notes on the work completed. While some older cameras remain at the Tillonia campus, others are kept in Kishangarh and Jaipur.

(00:00:17 – 00:01:26) Interview introduction (00:01:34 – 00:04:00) Early interest in audio from school days; exposure to radios made by family; first encounter with television at IIT Kanpur in 1970, when campus had large American cable TVs that often malfunctioned. Students learned to adjust them manually, marking their first practical experience with television technology. (00:04:15 – 00:07:11) Entry into computer maintenance after graduation but continued focus on audiovisual equipment. First exposure to videotape recorders at CENDIT in 1975–76, encountering both working Umatic three-quarter-inch recorders and problematic half-inch spool recorders. Learned extensively from detailed service manuals provided by companies like Sony, which offered full circuit diagrams and mechanical drawings. (00:07:17 – 00:10:47) Explanation of simple yet effective design of early portable recorders and the importance of engineering elegance. Technical discussion of video tape recorder mechanics, including rotating heads, servo synchronization, and bandwidth requirements for video versus audio recording. Described difficulties caused by power line frequency fluctuations in India and innovative fixes such as adjusting pulley diameters with cello tape. (00:10:58 – 00:14:13) Emphasis on problem-solving mindset in engineering, reliance on first principles, and improvisation when spares or imports were unavailable. Early editing equipment had to be designed in-house. Recounted project to design a color television set in 1982 during import restrictions, starting from scratch with minimal components and reference materials, eventually achieving India's first working color TV model. (00:14:18 – 00:18:27) Challenges of designing the TV included limited access to ICs and reliance on international datasheets. First successful test of color broadcast left a strong impression due to complexity of PAL transmission system. Later, team designed high-resolution monochrome monitors considered benchmarks at the time. The 1982 Asian Games and Doordarshan's expansion marked a turning point in Indian television broadcasting. (00:19:00 – 00:20:09) Mentoring of young engineers ensured strong grounding in fundamentals, enabling them to adapt to changing technologies. Transitioned from Umatic to Betacam, then to digital formats, cameras, and switching equipment, working closely with Sony in these developments. (00:20:18 – 00:21:55) Moved to the UK in 1983, working with a company manufacturing computer components and audio-related equipment. Returned to India in 1986 and joined NBL, Sony's dealer, heading marketing and maintenance operations and training a large pool of engineers who later became industry leaders. (00:22:16 – 00:24:59) Later career at Snell & Wilcox (1995–2014), introducing high-end broadcast hardware to India. Gave feedback to engineers in the UK to adapt products to Indian power conditions. Facilitated local repairs despite company policies favoring card replacements, often improvising with imported components to meet client needs. (00:25:05 – 00:27:20) Extensive work in training, including consultancy with the UN in Egypt and Sri Lanka around 1982/83, and close collaboration with Doordarshan engineers during transitions such as standard definition to HDTV. Emphasized need for engineers to understand production challenges, not just hardware. (00:27:27 – 00:28:48) Early editing practices using stopwatches before dedicated editing controllers were available. Innovations included building custom remote connectors and timers for Umatic recorders to enable synchronized edits despite lack of official equipment. (00:28:55 – 00:31:39) Talks about family background in tinkering and how it shaped his interest in engineering and problem-solving. Currently in the design department at III where everything focuses on innovation and design. Mentions learning on outdated machines at IIT Kanpur that Japan had already phased out, but they were useful for understanding mechanical systems despite lack of new equipment. (00:31:40 – 00:42:38) Explains how old service manuals and circuit diagrams were detailed and essential, unlike current ones that have minimal information. Manufacturers stopped sharing data fearing copying of technology. Notes that design should include maintenance and accessibility. Says instruments are now made by MBAs, not engineers, making them impractical. Believes technology benefits manufacturers more than users. (00:42:39 – 00:46:36) Discusses gatekeeping of technology by manufacturers and avoidance of universal standards. Increase in number of formats makes work harder for technicians. Notes decline of technician's role due to black-box systems where parts like motherboards are replaced instead of repaired. Mentions environmental damage and lack of recycling. (00:46:37 – 00:49:19) Says manufacturers adopt ideas from technicians without credit. Innovation should come from a loop between service and design, but this link is missing. Describes it as political technological bullying where industries control the system. (00:49:20 – 00:58:46) Talks about Indian market and lack of innovation from technician perspectives. Gives an example of 3D TV failure as predicted due to inconvenience. Notes dependency on internet-based systems. Says the digital era made troubleshooting difficult and reduced redundancy. Ease of use increased but reliability fell. (00:58:47 – 01:07:28) Emphasizes need for redundancy in design for reliability. Mentions switch from SD to HD and differences across markets. Concludes that service feedback is essential but often ignored, leading to limited improvement in technology.

(00:00:00 – 00:08:00) Sharma traces his entry into electronics to the early 1970s, recalling how buying a DIY transistor book in Chhapra and successfully building his first radio sparked deeper interest. He notes that this early success led his father to encourage formal, professional training. By the late 1970s, he moved to Delhi, where he began working with early television equipment, including systems that combined valve-based and semiconductor-based technologies. (00:08:01 – 00:16:00) Sharma describes his early professional work in the 1980s, emphasizing hands-on, component-level problem-solving. He recounts situations where replacement ICs were unavailable and explains how he designed external circuitry to bypass failed components and restore functionality. He also discusses instances of recovering or stabilizing master tapes that had been partially compromised during editing, highlighting the ingenuity required in pre-digital workflows. (00:16:01 – 00:24:00) Reflecting on work in large broadcast setups around the turn of the millennium, Sharma recalls confronting persistent audio interference problems, particularly low-frequency hum. He explains how extended troubleshooting—over multiple nights—eventually revealed grounding and power-related issues contaminating the signal chain, underscoring the importance of electrical fundamentals in broadcast engineering. (00:24:01 – 00:32:00) He details the operational realities of early color television studios built around VTR-based workflows, where reviewing footage often required specific hardware configurations. Sharma recalls artists requesting particular machines to view or assess their work and describes the atmosphere of early studios as technically demanding but innovative, with engineers and artists working closely around shared physical systems. (00:32:01 – 00:40:00) Sharma articulates a philosophy of treating every technical failure as a challenge rather than a problem. To illustrate this mindset, he shares personal examples of building custom solutions—such as improvised hearing aids for relatives—using basic speakers, amplifiers, and available components to meet immediate human needs when commercial solutions were inaccessible or unaffordable. (00:40:01 – 00:48:00) He critiques contemporary electronics manufacturing, arguing that while modern equipment often appears more refined and visually polished, internal robustness has not always kept pace. Sharma stresses that earlier systems were designed with durability and repairability in mind and suggests manufacturers should aim to exceed user expectations rather than merely satisfy minimum functional requirements. (00:48:01 – 00:56:00) Sharma highlights a persistent gap between researchers, designers, and end users. He emphasizes that technicians working "on the ground" encounter real-world failure modes first and therefore represent the most valuable source of feedback for improving hardware reliability, usability, and long-term performance. (00:56:01 – 01:04:00) Drawing on international work experience, Sharma recounts an incident in New York where he resolved a serious image-quality issue by manually adjusting internal camera parameters not exposed through standard user menus. His intervention restored acceptable output and prevented professional repercussions for the camera operator, illustrating the value of deep system-level understanding beyond surface controls. (01:04:01 – 01:12:00) Sharma observes that many globally recognized electronics brands rely heavily on chip-based designs developed or manufactured in Bangalore. He connects this to the dominance of autofocus systems and consumer-market optimization in modern cameras, noting how contemporary design priorities are driven by integrated circuits rather than discrete hardware logic. (01:12:01 – 01:20:00) He recounts a dangerous early-morning shoot at sea where waves caused professional equipment and recorded tapes to be submerged in saltwater. Sharma describes the immediate response—retrieving the gear and rinsing it to reduce corrosion—emphasizing how quickly saltwater can destroy electronics and magnetic media if not addressed at once. (01:20:01 – 01:28:00) Data Recovery and Generation Loss Following the sea incident, Sharma explains the difficulty of extracting usable signals from water-damaged tapes. He stresses the importance of capturing whatever data remains immediately, as repeated playback or delayed transfer accelerates degradation and leads to cumulative generation loss. (01:28:01 – 01:29:33) The interview closes with reflections on modern troubleshooting, where many failures are now resolved at the software level through actions such as clearing caches or resetting systems. Sharma contrasts this with earlier hardware-centric practices and expresses a desire to continue teaching and mentoring younger engineers so that accumulated technical intuition is not lost. (01:29:34 – 01:30:19) The final moments consist of brief conversational remarks as the discussion winds down, without introducing new technical themes.

(00:00:00 – 00:05:00) Zafar says he joined in "February 1990" after completing a three-year diploma in electronics/communication, and that when he arrived he encountered the large studio setup that had been installed in "1982" (he mentions York University/Canada in this context). He credits the institute's founding vision to the then Vice-Chancellor "Professor Anwar Jamal "Khadwai"" (name as it appears in the transcript) and situates early media-centre work alongside CEC-related production (recordings/scripting done in their studios/editing labs). He describes the initial studio as a "geometric low-band" setup with "mostly Sony" equipment (mics, mixers, recorders, cameras). He then notes a "1990–91 cooperation project" where the "Japan government provided ~27 crores" for upgradation, after which they moved "directly from low-band to Betacam SP" (skipping high-band). He adds that low-band quality was weak, lighting issues often caused "green/blue casts", while audio fundamentals remained analogue.

(00:05:01 – 00:10:00) He emphasizes that audio is fundamentally an "analogue signal" (and even remarks "no system in this universe is digital"), framing "digital" as a representation/processing layer rather than something that exists in nature by itself. He also contrasts editing/control methods across formats: Betacam uses "timecode", while the earlier geometric setup relied on "CTL control track", which constrained "insert" edits; if you needed changes after making a copy, you often had to "redo the process" with the same time cost.

(00:10:01 – 00:15:00) He explains that student outdoor shoots produced more troubleshooting because students handled equipment more roughly; typically, a student crew included "one technical person + one lighting assistant" to support safety, power, and troubleshooting. He lists typical kits for these exercises: "VO 4800 portable recorders", geometric portable recorders, "ITC 730", and "Ikegami" cameras. He recalls a student accidentally enabling a "negative test image switch" and panicking because the viewfinder looked "negative"; Zafar reassured him the "recording was fine" and explained it was a maintenance/testing function. He also shares practical sound-recording tips: place the mic "with respect to wind direction" so wind doesn't strike the diaphragm directly, and sometimes use an "umbrella as a wind block" to reduce noise.

(00:15:01 – 00:20:00) He notes that analogue machines' tape transport involves "moving/locking guides before recording starts", so handling during transport matters. He advises students to keep the recorder "on their lap rather than on the vehicle floor", and to protect microphones during handling. He also warns against connecting XLR / handling audio chain carelessly at high levels, he explicitly mentions that improper handling can cause "surge current" and damage the microphone.

(00:20:01 – 00:27:30) He describes analogue tape systems as mechanically "cumbersome," where tape speed stability is critical: the transport includes a "video head on a drum", a "control track", a separate "audio head", and a "pinch roller/holder"—and if tape speed varies, you won't get proper "audio-video recording". This is why technicians repeatedly had to guide students on small operational details during field exercises.

(00:27:31 – 00:35:17) He expands the comparison by describing film-era editing infrastructure: Steenbeck editing tables (6-plate/4-plate), 16mm cameras, and film editing that required running "three reels simultaneously", marking cut points, "splicing", then sending the copy to a lab to make a "positive", which he calls a tedious process. For separate audio recording, he mentions having expensive ""Naga/Nagra 4.2"" recorders (the transcript spells it "Naga"), with multiple units used for student teaching/exercises. He then notes the economic barrier in the analogue era—normal individuals couldn't afford editing tables/studio gear, so people depended on institutes and studios—whereas with digital tools the gap reduced sharply: a laptop plus cheaper gear can enable home recording/editing, though quality still depends on budget and compromises.

(00:35:18 – 00:35:40) Zafar prepares to explain the "why" behind a statement, characterising the reason as simple and something the listener will find relatable. Following a prompt from the interviewer, Zafar mentions a specific scene involving a policeman standing on a corner in Rakin Nagar.(00:00:00 – 00:07:30) Zafar explains analog signals using the example of a continuous sine wave, while digital signals are binary (0/1), "step-wise." He defines "sampling" as cutting the wave into small "vertical portions"; if sampling is not high enough, information is lost "between two cuts", which changes what you hear. He says this is why trained listeners - especially musicians-often "never love digital audio," and he gives personal examples from working with musicians to illustrate how ears pick up what's missing.

(00:07:31 – 00:15:00) He contrasts analog-era "component-level" repair (finding and replacing a faulty capacitor/resistor/transistor) with digital systems where chips contain "billions and billions" of components and cannot realistically be repaired at that level. He notes how SMDs and multilayer PCBs further increase miniaturization and complexity, pushing modern maintenance toward "card-level replacement". Even then, he stresses fundamentals are still required to identify 'which' card is faulty.

(00:15:01 – 00:22:30) Zafar describes a shift toward a "remote engineer" model, one experienced engineer can support/control equipment remotely instead of having an experienced engineer at every location. He compares this to MOOCs (Massive Open Online Courses), where one teacher can reach thousands across locations without physical classroom boundaries.

(00:22:31 – 00:30:00) He explains how engineers track which cards fail most often and use physical cues (excess heat, burning smell, etc.) to label certain cards as "most vulnerable" after specific working hours, feeding this back to companies. The discussion connects to chip manufacturing: chips come from circular silicon wafers, and parts toward the edges can be less reliable - helping explain why "8-core / 9-core / 10-core" product variants exist.

(00:30:01 – 00:37:30) Zafar shares a story that early large-scale computer cabling could be physically disrupted—he mentions rats damaging cables in the US, changing information and triggering a serious false signal (fighters came out of hangars before the issue was noticed). He then urges people to stop being afraid of computers, arguing that "nothing is deleted" until repeated confirmations, and even then recovery/undo-like actions may exist—so the fear is often psychological rather than real.

(00:37:31 – 00:45:00) He questions the push toward 4K/8K/12K/16K, noting human perceptual limits (e.g., beyond certain frame/frequency thresholds the eye cannot "judge" differences easily). He frames higher resolution as an attempt to match the perceived quality of analog film ("celluloid"). He also touches on aspect ratio changes (e.g., 4:3) as part of the evolution.

(00:45:01 – 00:52:30) Zafar briefly links fundamentals to real systems, mentioning transformers used in audio and the idea of step-up/step-down voltage. He also uses optical media history as an example of technological evolution: early CDs were market-bought and not recordable at home; later advances enabled new ways of recording/reading (he mentions the shift to laser-based mechanisms when discussing CDs).

(00:52:31 – 01:00:00) Using biology as a signal-processing metaphor, he argues systems minimize delay by keeping processing pathways short (e.g., ear-to-brain distance). He then pushes back on "AI will finish everything" claims, saying: "who made AI?"- and uses the "lock" analogy: the one who makes the lock will be more expert than the lock itself, calling the fear/claim a "myth."

(01:00:01 – 01:03:42) He warns about the problem of "authenticity" in the digital era—calling books the most authentic, while criticizing WhatsApp/YouTube as not reliable sources. He also notes Wikipedia used to be more controlled/authentic but can now be edited by anyone, which can degrade knowledge quality for users.

(00:00:00 – 00:06:59) The interview opens with a discussion about the structure of a proposed film documenting MCRC's technical history. The interviewer and Nadeem talk about the importance of locating old photographs, drawings, or documents that could visually explain the early infrastructure of the centre. Nadeem notes that many original technical drawings and records are no longer available, making it difficult to reconstruct the early setup visually. He then introduces himself, stating that he joined MCRC in 1990. He briefly outlines his educational background in electronics and communication and his earlier professional experience working as a service engineer at BPL, repairing televisions, VCRs, and audio equipment, before moving to Jamia on a contractual role and gradually taking on greater responsibilities. (00:07:00 – 00:09:30) Nadeem recalls his early days at MCRC, when he was questioned about professional video formats during his interview. He explains that although he was familiar with half-inch VHS systems, he was initially unfamiliar with three-quarter-inch professional formats. After being prompted, he learned that this referred to U-matic equipment. He reflects on how confidence, adaptability, and rapid learning were essential, as much of the required broadcast knowledge was acquired practically rather than through formal training. (00:09:31 – 00:13:45) Nadeem describes the nature of technical work in the early analogue era, emphasizing hands-on repair practices. He explains that engineers were expected to diagnose problems down to the component level, such as identifying faulty resistors or electronic parts, rather than simply replacing entire boards. He mentions dealing with synchronization-related issues in machines and contrasts this detailed repair culture with later practices where faulty cards or modules were replaced as complete units. (00:13:46 – 00:21:00) He discusses the limitations of analogue tape-based systems, particularly the issue of "generation loss." Each copy or edit degraded image and sound quality, which placed strict constraints on editing workflows. Nadeem contrasts this with computer-based systems, where copying and editing do not progressively degrade quality. He also reflects on earlier film and tape editing methods, which involved physical cutting or sequential copying, making the editing process slower and less forgiving. (00:21:01 – 00:29:30) Nadeem explains that colour handling was a major challenge in earlier U-matic and tube-camera systems. He recalls frequent issues with colour balance and mentions instances where students accidentally activated a "negative" mode, resulting in incorrect images. He explains the importance of white balance in maintaining consistent colour reproduction, particularly skin tones, and briefly describes the underlying idea of balancing red, green, and blue signals. These examples illustrate both the technical fragility of older systems and the learning curve students faced. (00:29:31 – 00:35:30) The discussion continues with reflections on day-to-day technical realities. Nadeem emphasizes that many problems arose not from major equipment failure but from small issues such as improper handling, incorrect settings, or lack of attention to basic procedures. He highlights how much technical knowledge was passed on informally, through experience rather than manuals, and how technicians often had to intervene quietly to ensure student projects could proceed smoothly. (00:35:31 – 00:52:30) Nadeem talks about recurring problems with cables, explaining that internal breaks caused by pulling or poor handling often led to signal loss. He notes that studio cables were particularly troublesome and required careful rolling and storage, something students frequently neglected. He reflects on how maintenance demands have persisted even as technology evolved, and how technicians often had to balance multiple responsibilities to keep systems operational. (00:52:31 – 00:57:35) He compares older, physically larger switchers—such as Grass Valley models—with newer, compact control surfaces. While older systems were bulky, he notes that they were often easier to understand and teach. In contrast, newer switchers combine multiple functions into single buttons or controls, making them more confusing for beginners. He likens this to computer keyboards where one key performs multiple actions depending on combinations. (00:57:36 – 00:59:41) Reflects on how his responsibilities have expanded over time, especially as colleagues retired and fewer technical staff remained. He mentions that his work now includes overseeing air-conditioning and electrical issues in addition to electronics. He notes that while he used to maintain written technical notes, many were lost over time due to relocation and changing circumstances. (00:59:42 – ~01:01:10) Reiterates the importance of archival photographs or technical drawings to help viewers understand earlier technologies. He explains that visuals make it much easier to grasp how tube-based circuitry functioned, and how later Betacam-era systems became more complex due to card-based architecture. Nadeem responds that he does not currently possess such photographs or drawings but agrees to check if any can be found, including whether any material exists in digitized form.

(00:00:00 – 00:00: 48) Introduction to the project

(00: 00: 49 - 00: 00: 4:09) Discusses his background: he graduated in Electrical Engineering (low current/electronics) from Aligarh. He briefly worked for a fridge company in Faridabad but left due to the commute and a refusal to sign a long-term contract, before learning of a need for engineers at MCRC.

(00:04:10 – 00:07:02)He recounts leaving his resume (bio-data) at Jamia, which led to a telegram invitation for an interview. He started during the 1984/85 setup period by the Canadian team (including Ken McCurry), who installed the analogue gear, such as pneumatic editing systems and the portable 4800 tape recorder with a DC 6000 tube camera. (00:07:03 – 00:16:00)Yusuf details the difficulty of maintenance due to "local engineers" creating a knowledge monopoly. He trained himself by spending hours late at night watching the tape mechanisms of the machines. He mentions the pressure on the young Indian engineers after the Canadian team left, especially given their low pay and "junior" status, forcing complete reliance on self-taught maintenance skills.

(00:16:01 – 00:22:20) He discusses the challenging maintenance of the large 1-inch C-format video tape recorder (VPR-20). Rawal describes a specific instance of a motor belt issue where he determined the belt had stretched and was slipping. Since waiting for parts from the US was impossible, he improvised a special, thicker replacement (like a rubber band) to restore functionality, highlighting the need for self-reliance in that era.

(00:22:21 – 00:26:50) Yusuf contrasts the role of an operator, who focuses on a single piece of equipment, with that of the maintenance engineer. The engineer must ensure the entire network and all signals are working perfectly, requiring comprehensive, system-level thinking. He emphasizes that the maintenance engineer needs to know every single connection and signal path.

(00:26:51 – 00:33:00) He discusses the first color cameras used by MCRC (Philips LDK 14s). The main challenge was maintaining the three separate color signals (Red, Green, Blue) and protecting the sensitive and extremely expensive camera tubes. Balancing these signals and managing the camera tubes was a constant, technically demanding task.

(00:33:01 – 00:38:00) The interviewer asks about the psychological toll of the job. Yusuf responds by stressing the importance of documentation (making charts of connections) and the continuous, informal technical support provided by the Canadian team after they departed. He states that although the job was stressful, it ultimately gave him "full command" over the entire MCRC system.

(00:38:01 – 00:44:00) He discusses his experience working with the team on the Times TV science show Turning Point in the early 1990s. He highlights the non-stop, high-pressure production environment, which was a stark contrast to the calmer, academic setting of MCRC. He mentions working with people like Kiran Segal and found the constant corporate pressure difficult to manage.

(00:44:01 – 00:48:47) Yusuf reflects on returning to MCRC and the influence of colleagues like Rebecca. He emphasizes the importance of multiculturalism and his enduring, positive relationship with the initial Canadian technical team. This relationship led to introductions to other professional networks, such as NICEST, confirming the long-term benefit of those early connections (00:00:00 – 00:04:09) Yusuf expresses his deep emotional connection to MCRC, stating he would have never left if not for certain changes, as it was the start of his life. He asserts that he was involved in setting up everything at the center, from the soundproofing and studio construction to the installation of all the new equipment.

(00:04:10 – 00:09:00) He describes the meticulous process of planning the MCRC studios. He recounts traveling to Japan where the technical team measured every corner of the existing facility to ensure the new equipment and setup would fit perfectly. He explains that the entire studio infrastructure was designed with precise measurements taken directly from their physical location.

(00:09:01 – 00:13:00) Yusuf details the complexities of soundproofing the studios, emphasizing the high standards required to achieve acoustic clarity. They needed perfect sound treatment to avoid any external noise interfering with the audio recordings, which involved specialized materials and installation techniques.

(00:13:01 – 00:19:00) The discussion shifts to the transition from analogue to digital technology. He mentions the difficulties and instability that arose during this shift, particularly with the introduction of new NLE (Non-Linear Editing) systems. He notes that the change often caused friction with staff who preferred the familiar analogue workflow.

(00:19:00 – 00:24:00) He reiterates the critical need for comprehensive documentation during the transition, stressing that technical drawings and maintenance records were essential for managing the installation of digital audio equipment and the accompanying wiring, much like he documented the analogue systems.

(00:24:01 – 00:29:00) After the equipment was installed and running, Yusuf's role evolved into long-term maintenance and dealing with institutional auditing. He discusses the pressure of ensuring the expensive, often temperamental analogue equipment stayed functional years after it was installed.

(00:29:01 – 00:35:00) His responsibilities gradually expanded far beyond his core expertise in electronics. He became involved in managing all campus infrastructure, including general maintenance and dealing with the electricity supply. He mentions installing an inverter system and managing power output, moving into areas outside of his original engineering training.

(00:35:01 – 00:43:22) Yusuf shares the unexpected challenges from financial audits. He recalls receiving reports asking why the electricity bill was high and why he hadn't installed a capacitor bank to reduce the power factor . He initially resisted, arguing he was an electronics expert, but realized he had to solve the problem and eventually oversaw the installation to improve power efficiency.

(00:43:23 -00:43:48) Concluding talks

(00:00:00 – 00:02:30) Project introduction by the interviewer, explaining the NCBS–TIFR initiative to document the histories of technicians and maintenance engineers in India's audiovisual and broadcast sectors. Context of archives and consent is established.

(00:02:31 – 00:05:30) Mahendra Sharma describes his early life in a village near Palwal, limited schooling, and the economic constraints of a farming household. He explains how these conditions shaped his entry into technical education.

(00:05:31 – 00:09:00) He recounts enrolling in ITI training in Radio and Television at Nizamuddin and his initial struggles finding stable employment. Early work as a radio mechanic and assembler in informal electronics markets is described.

(00:09:01 – 00:12:30) Sharma narrates his work in Lajpat Rai Market during the late 1970s, assembling pocket radios and multi-band radios, piece-rate wages, and the intensity of manual electronics production.

(00:12:31 – 00:15:30) He discusses joining Disco TV and Western TV, moving from assembly to production roles. An unexpected promotion to production engineer follows an accident involving a senior colleague.

(00:15:31 – 00:18:30) Short stints at Televista and a Telefunken factory taken over by Dalmia are described. Sharma emphasizes factory discipline, production targets, and proximity to his village as motivating factors.

(00:18:31 – 00:22:00) He explains his entry into Doordarshan in the early 1980s, early postings in MCR and MSR, and frustration when assigned to non-electronics duties such as AC plant work despite his technical background.

(00:22:01 – 00:25:30) Sharma details multiple transfers within Doordarshan, including installation work and postings at Vigyan Bhavan. He clarifies timelines around joining in 1982–83.

(00:25:31 – 00:29:30) He describes working in ENG maintenance during the tube-camera era, including registration issues, tube damage, and the physically demanding nature of maintenance work.

(00:29:31 – 00:32:30) The transition from tube cameras to CCD cameras is discussed. Sharma explains how CCD technology reduced manual labor and simplified fault diagnosis.

(00:32:31 – 00:36:00) Posting to Jaipur ENG maintenance is recalled. He describes working with M3 tube cameras, early CCD systems, and adapting to new technical environments.

(00:36:01 – 00:39:30) System conversion work and mentorship by senior engineers are discussed. Sharma explains being encouraged to pursue further qualifications beyond ITI.

(00:39:31 – 00:42:30) He narrates completing a part-time diploma through Jamia, balancing work and study, and the importance of certification for promotion from technician to engineering roles.

(00:42:31 – 00:46:00) Sharma emphasizes self-learning through books, libraries, and continuous upgrading of skills—from tubes to CCDs to microprocessors.

(00:46:01 – 00:49:30) A detailed incident is described where Sharma fixed a long-standing camera fault by identifying a broken wire, earning recognition and outstanding performance reports.

(00:49:31 – 00:52:30) He recounts resolving a jammed VTR tape containing a Chief Minister's recording, reinforcing trust in his diagnostic abilities.

(00:52:31 – 00:55:00) Sharma describes repairing an M3 camera deemed irreparable by others, working long hours alone to locate hairline cracks on circuit boards.

(00:55:01 – 00:56:50) The interview concludes with reflections on minimalist repair tools, systematic troubleshooting logic, pride in technical labor, consent for archival use, and hopes that his experience benefits future researchers.

(00:00:00 – 00:03:00) Opening of the interview with formal consent and institutional framing. Rakesh Kumar introduces himself, mentioning his Delhi background (Lajpat Nagar) and begins outlining his early educational path and initial exposure to technical work.

(00:03:01 – 00:06:30) Educational training in electrical engineering. He discusses completing a diploma, working on projects involving transistors and basic electronics, and developing practical interest through hands-on experimentation rather than theory alone.

(00:06:31 – 00:09:30) Post-diploma specialization and early maintenance work. Rakesh Kumar describes studying electronics and microwave technology and spending several years in maintenance roles, where routine faults and repairs shaped his technical understanding.

(00:09:31 – 00:13:00) Early professional assignments. He recalls working with Bentex and later being involved in the installation of Appu Ghar in Delhi, describing it as a new entertainment-oriented project combining electrical and electronic systems with limited prior models to follow.

(00:13:01 – 00:17:00) Working conditions and learning on site. The interviewee explains how large public installations required teamwork, improvisation, and problem-solving in the absence of manuals or formal technology transfer.

(00:17:01 – 00:21:00) Shift toward broadcast-related experience. Rakesh Kumar emphasizes the importance of observation in understanding equipment behavior and diagnosing problems that are not immediately visible through standard checks.

(00:21:01 – 00:25:00) Discussion of image quality and colour judgment. He explains how satellite transmission affects colour reproduction and how technicians adjust colour balance, often preferring richer or warmer tones to compensate for signal loss.

(00:25:01 – 00:29:00) Subjectivity in technical decision-making. The interviewee reflects on how image aesthetics depend on personal judgement, transmission medium, and viewing context rather than fixed technical standards.

(00:29:01 – 00:33:00) Technological change over time. He discusses equipment miniaturization and improvements in quality, recalling early skepticism about digital photography and how such technologies later became standard.

(00:33:01 – 00:37:00) User experience and feedback. Rakesh Kumar explains that while technicians' feedback is not always formally acknowledged, recurring complaints and field experience influence how equipment evolves.

(00:37:01 – 00:41:00) Market competition and formats. He reflects on competition between manufacturers such as Sony, JVC, and Panasonic, using examples like Betamax versus VHS to explain how technologies succeed or disappear.

(00:41:01 – 00:45:00) Relationship between servicing and R&D. The interviewee distinguishes between commercial servicing environments and research departments, stressing the need for communication between field technicians and designers.

(00:45:01 – 00:48:00) Examples of manufacturer response. He describes instances where feedback led to documented modifications, with companies informing users about changes made after research and field observation.

(00:48:01 – 00:50:08) Final technical reflections. Rakesh Kumar returns to discussion of colour tuning and visual judgment in broadcast work, emphasizing experience-based decision-making.

(00:50:09 – 00:51:06) Conclusion of the interview. Closing remarks, expressions of thanks, and confirmation that the recording will be used for archival and research purposes.

(00:00:00 – 00:09:47) The interview begins with greetings and introductions. Rawat discusses joining CENDIT in 1977. While initially meant for administrative help, he was quickly assigned to the dark room where he learned the foundational skills of photography and film processing, which set the stage for his technical career. (00:09:48 – 00:15:23) He describes the organizational decision to start a video unit using the U-matic format . Rawat took the initiative to learn the operation of the new, bulky camera and VCRs, effectively becoming the unit's key technical operator from the start. (00:15:24 – 00:26:47) Rawat recalls his very first outdoor shoot for a social project at a slum called Indira Camp. He then details how the team received essential formal, structured technical training from professionals, including experts who came from institutions like FTII (Film and Television Institute of India). (00:26:48 – 00:33:43) A core challenge was the lack of local service and repair centers for the imported video gear. Rawat explains that he had to become a maintenance expert, often completely stripping down the machines and improvising fixes to ensure the continuous functionality of the U-matic equipment. (00:33:44 – 00:39:56) He shares a major anecdote about his trip to Japan to purchase new equipment for CENDIT. This experience provided him with valuable, intensive, hands-on exposure to advanced technical systems, which further enhanced his practical knowledge. (00:39:57 – 00:47:33) Rawat reflects positively on CENDIT's organizational philosophy, praising its supportive, non-bureaucratic, and non-hierarchical work culture. He highlights how this environment encouraged every employee to learn, experiment, and grow their technical expertise. (00:47:34 – 00:54:14) Discusses the moral satisfaction he gained from working on video projects focused on sensitive social issues, such as women's rights and welfare. He also emphasizes the value and satisfaction he found in training his colleagues and contributing to their skill development. (00:54:15 – 01:01:31) Rawat discusses the major technological transition to the more professional BetaCam format and his role in setting up the new unit. He details the subsequent development and construction of new studios and editing facilities, managing the growing technical complexity. (01:01:32 – 01:05:07) He briefly covers the next technological evolution, which involved integrating digital non-linear editing systems like AVID, noting the need for continuous adaptation and skill upgrading to keep pace with industry changes. (01:05:08 – 01:11:14) Rawat stresses the importance of detailed technical documentation. He explains that they created specific diagrams and charts of all wiring and connections to ensure that if he left or a new engineer arrived, there would be no confusion, guaranteeing smooth shift transitions and system continuity.(00:00:00 – 00:11:59) Rawat recounts a crucial anecdote from a trip to Himachal, which emphasized the risk of equipment failure in remote areas without access to repair shops. This necessity led them to create their own "operation manual"—a practical guide specific to their unit's setup, which complemented the manufacturer's manual. He illustrates their resourcefulness, including having to improvise and purchase common parts (like projector bulbs) from non-traditional suppliers due to a lack of specialized local vendors.

(00:12:00 – 00:23:59) focuses on the rigorous, hands-on training the team provided to new engineers, covering maintenance as a core skill. Rawat discusses the critical importance of meticulous documentation, including making detailed notes and charts of connections for every project. This discipline ensured that every team member was aware of the system setup, promoting continuity and effective management of the increasingly complex BetaCam unit.

(00:24:00 – 00:35:59) The institutional challenges faced during the transition to digital editing (AVID). Rawat expresses concern that CENDIT began to value formal degrees and qualifications over the years of comprehensive practical knowledge held by the "old hands." This organizational decision to outsource roles and prioritize theoretical knowledge led to friction and a sense of marginalization among the long-serving technical staff, threatening the supportive, collective problem-solving culture of the past.

(00:36:00 – 00:45:12) Reflects on the true value of his practical expertise. He states he took pride in comprehensive knowledge of the entire video system, from wiring to operation, giving him a sense of control and the ability to foresee issues. He compares his technical knowledge to understanding the fundamental principles of mathematics, arguing that once the basics are mastered, any complex problem can be solved, asserting that his practical sense provides a valuable foundation that supersedes purely academic credentials.

(00:00:00 – 00:02:00) The interviewer introduces the NCBS–TIFR archival project, outlines its focus on audiovisual practices in India, and formally records consent for archival, educational, and commercial use.

(00:02:01 – 00:05:00) Yousuf Saeed recalls first encounters with television in the late 1970s through neighbors' homes and shared hostel spaces at Jamia, emphasizing the communal nature of early TV viewing and limited Doordarshan schedules.

(00:05:01 – 00:07:30) He notes that television entered his own household much later, around the end of his studies or early professional life, reinforcing how television initially remained a public and collective experience.

(00:07:31 – 00:10:30) Saeed discusses enrolling in the MA in Mass Communication at Jamia Millia Islamia. Coming from a science background, he initially aimed toward science journalism and science communication rather than film or television production.

(00:10:31 – 00:14:00) He outlines the course structure at Jamia, including theory, photography, radio, sound recording, investigative journalism, and foundational communication studies.

(00:14:01 – 00:17:30) Saeed gives a detailed account of analog photography training: shooting on celluloid, developing film in darkrooms, printing black-and-white photographs, and learning material processes of image production.

(00:17:31 – 00:21:30) He explains early audio-visual slide show practices using transparency film, carousel projectors, synchronized spool-tape soundtracks, and dual projectors to avoid black frames, describing the process as complex but creatively engaging.

(00:21:31 – 00:24:30) Saeed reflects on how slide shows taught sequencing, narrative logic, and storytelling through still images and sound, laying the groundwork for later video work.

(00:24:31 – 00:28:30) Discussion moves to radio programming, graphics, poster-making, and campaign design exercises, highlighting storytelling across different media formats.

(00:28:31 – 00:32:30) He describes early video training using U-matic low-band systems, limited VHS shooting, and in-camera editing exercises that required careful planning due to the absence of post-production flexibility.

(00:32:31 – 00:36:00) Saeed contrasts student freedom with professional pressures, describing the demands of editing under commercial deadlines, particularly while working on science programs such as Turning Point.

(00:36:01 – 00:40:00) He provides a detailed explanation of linear video editing workflows, including rewinding and fast-forwarding tapes, physical transfers between VTRs, generation loss, and the inability to reorder sequences once edited.

(00:40:01 – 00:47:00) The interview deepens into reflections on how technological limitations shaped creativity. Saeed explains how linear editing imposed discipline and planning while simultaneously restricting experimentation compared to later non-linear systems.

(00:47:01 – 00:55:00) Saeed recounts instances of creative problem-solving under constraint, including salvaging still images from damaged videotapes during field shoots and transforming technical failures into narrative solutions.

(00:55:01 – 01:03:00) He discusses the dual role editors often played as both technical operators and creative decision-makers, contrasting this integrated practice with more fragmented roles in contemporary production environments.

(01:03:01 – 01:12:00) Saeed describes long-term working relationships with commercial studios such as K-Video in Hauz Khas, which functioned as extended workplaces. He emphasizes trust-based access to expensive equipment and the studio as a 'second home'.

(01:12:01 – 01:20:00) The conversation turns to quality-control cultures in analog production, including rigorous sound monitoring, lighting discipline, camera setup standards, and minimal reliance on post-production correction.

(01:20:01 – 01:27:00) Saeed explains technological transitions from U-matic low-band to high-band systems and later formats, discussing improvements in luminance, chrominance, sound channels, and overall image quality, alongside the need to understand machine behavior.

(01:27:01 – 01:31:23) The interview concludes with reflections on learning technology on the job, dependence on engineers for equipment maintenance, the physicality of analog machines, and broader observations on how digital workflows have transformed time, labor, and creativity in audiovisual production.